Paper 1: Babel Is Not a Place: Genesis 11:1–9 as the Founding Anti-Imperial Text of Scripture

The Bounds of Their Habitation, Tier 1, Cluster A

Abstract

This paper argues that Genesis 11:1–9 functions in the canon not as an etiology of linguistic diversity attached to a particular ruined ziggurat, but as the founding description of a structure the canon will name and re-name for the next thousand years. The passage supplies four marks — concentration in one place, one language, a name made for ourselves, and a tower — and it supplies them without a king, a date, an army, or a border. That omission is the point. What the text describes is a configuration available at any scale, and the paper reads it accordingly. It sets the passage against Genesis 10:8–12, the first named imperial sequence in Scripture, in which the two great imperial names of the canon, Babel and Nineveh, appear in a single paragraph and in a single line of expansion. It then argues that the scattering of Genesis 11:8–9 is better read as restraint and mercy than as punishment alone, without denying that it is judgment, and that the immediately following call of Abram in Genesis 12:1–3 is a point-by-point reversal of all four marks. The paper closes with four propositions for the wider framework and a short diagnostic instrument that does not require a state to apply.

1. The argument

Genesis 11:1–9 is nine verses long. It names no king. It gives no date, no dynasty, no army, no conquest, no subject population, and no boundary. It has never, so far as the archaeological record permits us to say, been securely attached to a particular structure, and the effort to attach it has produced more heat than result.[1] By every ordinary measure of what makes a political narrative useful to a historian, it is nearly empty.

This is precisely why it works as the founding text of an analysis of empire.

The passage describes a configuration rather than a polity. It gives four marks in four verses, and not one of the four requires a state to be present. A settlement that refuses to disperse; a single enforced idiom; a name conferred by the builders on themselves; and a vertical monument at the center. These four can be assembled by an empire, and historically they have been. They can also be assembled by a denomination, a firm, a university faculty, a family, or a congregation of forty people. The passage’s silence about scale is not a gap in the record. It is the analytical content of the passage.

The claim of this paper is therefore narrow and load-bearing for everything that follows in this collection: Babel is not a place. Babel is a description. The city in Shinar is the first instance the text records, not the definition of the category. Once this is seen, the canon’s later habit of applying the name “Babylon” to Rome, and then to a power that outlasts Rome, stops looking like loose metaphor and starts looking like the consistent application of a category the text defined at the outset.[2] Paper 2 takes up that application. This paper establishes the category.

2. The placement of the passage

2.1 The apparent contradiction with Genesis 10

Genesis 11:1 states that the whole earth was of one language and of one speech. Genesis 10, immediately preceding, has just concluded a genealogy in which the descendants of Japheth are divided “every one after his tongue” (10:5), the sons of Ham “after their tongues” (10:20), and the sons of Shem likewise (10:31), with the summary in 10:32 that “by these were the nations divided in the earth after the flood.”

The languages have already been divided before the story that divides them. Source-critical treatments generally resolve this by assigning the two chapters to different hands and accepting the seam.[3] That resolution is available, and nothing in this paper depends on rejecting it as a description of compositional history. But it does not answer the literary question, which is what the received arrangement is doing. And the received arrangement is doing something specific.

Genesis 10 is a horizontal document. It lists seventy nations, spread across the earth, differentiated by tongue, family, and land. It is the fullest positive statement of human plurality in the Pentateuch, and it is presented without complaint. No nation in the list is condemned for being a separate nation. This is the state of affairs Paper 3 will develop from Acts 17:26: bounded, plural peoples as an ordered good rather than a problem awaiting solution.

Genesis 11:1–9 is a vertical document set inside that horizontal one. Read as sequence, it contradicts. Read as commentary, it does not: the chapter that catalogues the many is interrupted by an episode about the ambition to be one. The narrative order says that plurality is the condition, and that the attempt to reverse plurality is the deviation requiring explanation. Cassuto’s reading of the two chapters as a deliberate pairing, in which the second explains the theological meaning of the first rather than narrating a prior event, remains the most economical account of the arrangement.[4]

2.2 The generations of Shem

There is a further placement detail that is easy to miss and difficult to explain as accident. The builders say, “let us make us a name” (11:4). The Hebrew word is shem. Eleven verses later, at 11:10, the narrative resumes: “These are the generations of Shem.”

The men on the plain propose to manufacture a shem. The text answers by producing the shem it had in hand all along, a line of descent running to Abram, and it does so within the same chapter. Whether this is authorial wordplay or arrangement, it establishes the contrast the passage is built on. A name is either made or received. The passage is about which.

3. Nimrod: the first named imperial sequence

Before the plain of Shinar there is a man.

And Cush begat Nimrod: he began to be a mighty one in the earth. He was a mighty hunter before the LORD: wherefore it is said, Even as Nimrod the mighty hunter before the LORD. And the beginning of his kingdom was Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar. Out of that land went forth Asshur, and builded Nineveh, and the city Rehoboth, and Calah, And Resen between Nineveh and Calah: the same is a great city. (Genesis 10:8–12)

Four observations bear on the framework.

First, this is the first occurrence of “kingdom” in Scripture. The Hebrew mamlakah enters the canon here, attached to this man, at the head of this list of cities. Whatever else the passage is doing, it is marking the introduction of a political form.

Second, the passage is structured as a sequence, not a portrait. Nimrod “began to be a mighty one,” and the beginning of his kingdom was four cities in Shinar; from that land the expansion proceeds northward and produces four more, culminating in the note that Resen, with Nineveh and Calah, “is a great city.” The narrative shape is: a founding center, replication of the center, expansion beyond the original land, and consolidation into greatness. This is the earliest imperial sequence the Bible names, and it is given in five verses with no evaluation attached other than the repeated word “mighty.”

Third, and decisively for this collection: Babel and Nineveh appear in the same paragraph and on the same line of expansion. The two names that will carry the canon’s account of empire from Genesis to Revelation — Babylon in Isaiah, Jeremiah, Daniel, 1 Peter, and Revelation; Nineveh in Jonah, Nahum, and Zephaniah — are introduced together, as the first and second phases of one continuous project.[5] Later prophetic literature treats Assyria and Babylon as successive and distinct powers. Genesis 10 has already told the reader that they are the same enterprise in two locations.

Fourth, the characterization of Nimrod is contested and the argument does not require settling it. The phrase “a mighty hunter before the LORD” has been read as commendation, as neutral idiom, as superlative, and as accusation, and the traditional derivation of the name from marad, “to rebel,” is a rabbinic and patristic reading rather than a demonstrable etymology.[6] The Masoretic phrase lipnê YHWH elsewhere carries no negative charge on its own. Nothing in the argument of this paper turns on Nimrod being a villain. What matters is structural: the canon’s first kingdom is a hunting kingdom that begins at Babel, does not stop at Babel, and ends at Nineveh. The evaluation is supplied by the following chapter, which describes what such a project is, without naming its builder at all.

That anonymity is itself the transition. Genesis 10 gives the imperial sequence with a name attached. Genesis 11 gives the imperial structure with the name removed. The removal generalizes the case.

4. The four marks

And the whole earth was of one language, and of one speech. And it came to pass, as they journeyed from the east, that they found a plain in the land of Shinar; and they dwelt there. And they said one to another, Go to, let us make brick, and burn them throughly. And they had brick for stone, and slime had they for morter. And they said, Go to, let us build us a city and a tower, whose top may reach unto heaven; and let us make us a name, lest we be scattered abroad upon the face of the whole earth. (Genesis 11:1–4)

4.1 Concentration: “they dwelt there”

The migrants find a plain and they stay. The stated motive comes at the end of verse 4: “lest we be scattered abroad upon the face of the whole earth.”

This is a direct counter-mandate. The instruction given at creation and repeated after the flood is to fill the earth: “Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth” (Genesis 1:28), restated at 9:1 and again, with emphasis, at 9:7. The builders name the outcome that command requires and identify it as the thing to be prevented. They are not indifferent to dispersal. They are organized against it.

Concentration is therefore the first mark, and it is not incidental to the other three. It is the precondition. A tower requires a labor force in one place; an enforced idiom requires a population close enough to enforce it upon; a name for ourselves requires a “we” that has agreed not to disperse. Mann’s account of early states as mechanisms of caging, in which the political achievement is less the projection of power outward than the prevention of exit, describes the same mechanism from the outside.[7] Scott’s more recent treatment of the earliest states as concentrations that had continually to prevent their populations from leaving describes it again.[8] Genesis 11 states the motive in the builders’ own mouths, which neither of those literatures can do.

4.2 One language: uniformity as infrastructure

Verse 1 renders literally as “one lip, and one set of words.” The doubling is not redundancy. It specifies both the medium and the content: a common tongue and a common vocabulary, a shared idiom and a shared agenda.

Modern readers hear this as a linguistic fact about the ancient world. It is better read as an administrative fact about the project. Uniformity of speech is what makes a large undertaking legible to its center: the order given at the top can be executed at the bottom without translation, and the state of the work at the bottom can be reported upward without loss. Scott’s account of legibility as the characteristic requirement of centralizing institutions, and of standardization as the tool that produces it, is the closest modern analogue.[9]

The point is sharpened by the Mesopotamian material. Neo-Assyrian royal inscriptions repeatedly boast of having made conquered and deported peoples into a single body of one mouth or one speech, an achievement listed alongside the construction of capitals.[10] The claim that Genesis 11 is composed in direct polemical engagement with that imperial self-presentation has been argued in detail by Uehlinger, and while the dating arguments are debatable, the correspondence of the two idioms is not.[11] A Sumerian passage in the Enmerkar material likewise speaks of a condition in which all the lands addressed the god in one tongue, though whether that passage looks backward to a lost unity or forward to a desired one remains disputed.[12]

The relevant conclusion holds under any of these datings. In the ancient Near Eastern imperial idiom, one speech is not the natural state of humanity that empire disrupts. It is an achievement empire claims. Genesis 11 treats it as such and treats the reversal of that achievement as the divine response.

4.3 A name for ourselves: “let us make us a name”

The third mark is the self-conferred name, and it is the diagnostic one, because it is the only one of the four that is purely a matter of claim rather than of construction.

The builders do not want to be named. They want to name themselves. The distinction runs through the whole canon and it appears in undiluted form eight verses later, when Abram is told: “I will make of thee a great nation, and I will bless thee, and make thy name great” (Genesis 12:2). The same word, the same verb of making, the same object of ambition. The difference is the subject of the verb.

This is the mark that makes the framework scale invariant, and it is worth stating why. A name made for ourselves is a totalizing claim by definition: it asserts that the significance of this community is generated internally and requires no external conferral, and therefore that it is answerable to no external standard for its own significance. That claim can be made by a superpower or by a small assembly with a distinctive doctrine. Nothing about it is size-indexed. The clearest specimen of it in the New Testament is a man in a house church who “loveth to have the preeminence” (3 John 9), and the paper on that text elsewhere in the suite depends on the equivalence being real, not rhetorical.

4.4 A tower: the vertical axis

The tower is fourth, and it is the mark most often mistaken for the whole. Popular treatments make the passage a story about a tall building and the sin of pride, which reduces a political analysis to a moral caution.

Three features of the description resist that reduction.

The first is the material note in verse 3: “they had brick for stone, and slime had they for morter.” This is a technical aside about the alluvial plain, which has no building stone, and about the bitumen used as mortar in Mesopotamian construction.[13] It reads as ethnographic accuracy, and it is. It also functions as a statement about capability: a substitute material, manufactured rather than quarried, produced by fire, in unlimited quantity. Brick is what makes monumental building possible where nature supplied none. The tower is not a story about ambition alone; it is a story about ambition that has acquired a technology adequate to it.

The second is the phrase “whose top may reach unto heaven.” The idiom is well attested in Mesopotamian building inscriptions as a conventional description of temple towers, and the Hebrew reproduces the convention rather than inventing a boast.[14] The staged temple tower of Mesopotamian practice was not a stairway for men to ascend to the god; it was the platform on which the god was expected to descend to the city.[15] Read against that background, the tower is a claim about the location of the divine presence. It says: the god comes down here.

The third is the divine answer, which is a parody of exactly that claim. The builders say, “Go to, let us build” (v. 3, 4). The LORD says, “Go to, let us go down” (v. 7). The same imperative, the same cohortative, the same construction. The city built a structure for heaven to come down to. Heaven comes down, and the coming down is the judgment. The passage is funny, and the joke is structural: the tower worked, and the visitor was not the one expected.

4.5 The marks as a set

The four marks are not a list of independent sins. They are a system with an order of dependency: concentration makes uniformity enforceable; uniformity makes the monument buildable; the monument makes the name plausible; the name justifies the concentration. Remove any one and the others degrade. This is why the divine response addresses the second mark and not the fourth. Confounding the language does not knock the tower down. It ends the project by removing the infrastructure, and the builders leave off building a city that is still standing (v. 8).

5. Why the passage is not about a place

Three features of the narrative resist localization, and each of them does analytical work.

No builder is named. Genesis 10 has just demonstrated that the text can name a founder of cities when it wants to. Genesis 11 declines. The actors are “they,” speaking to “one another.” The absence of a royal subject means that the reader cannot dispose of the passage by concluding that the problem was a particular bad king.

No date, no outcome, no ruin. The narrative does not say the tower fell. It says the builders stopped and left. There is no destruction scene, which is remarkable given how readily the canon supplies destruction scenes elsewhere. The city persists; the project ends. What is arrested is a configuration, not a structure.

The naming is a re-naming. Verse 9 gives the etymology: “Therefore is the name of it called Babel; because the LORD did there confound the language of all the earth.” The city’s own name, in Akkadian, means gate of the god — bab-ili — which is the imperial self-designation, and precisely the sort of name one makes for oneself. The Hebrew narrator declines it and supplies a homophone from the root balal, “to confound.”[16] This is not a philological error. It is a deliberate substitution: the name the builders made is overwritten with a name describing what happened to them.

That substitution is the canon’s first act of renaming an empire, and it inaugurates the device Paper 2 traces across a thousand years. When 1 Peter writes from “Babylon” and Revelation calls a seven-hilled city by the same name, the operation is identical in kind to Genesis 11:9: the imperial self-designation is refused, and a name describing the structure is applied in its place. Genesis establishes that Scripture reserves the right to name empires by what they are rather than by what they call themselves. Everything later in the canon exercises a right that this verse claims.

Once the passage is read this way, its emptiness becomes its utility. A narrative with a named king, a dated reign, and a documented ruin would have given us a case. A narrative with four marks and no proper nouns gives us a category.

6. The scattering as mercy

6.1 The stated reason

And the LORD said, Behold, the people is one, and they have all one language; and this they begin to do: and now nothing will be restrained from them, which they have imagined to do. (Genesis 11:6)

The reason given is capability, not offense. The divine speech does not say that the builders have blasphemed, or that the tower is an insult, or that the name is arrogant, though all three could have been said and none would have been wrong. It says that under present conditions there is no limit to what they will be able to carry out.

The word carrying the weight is “restrained.” The concern is the absence of a ceiling. And the response is to install one, by removing the shared idiom on which unlimited execution depended.

6.2 The pattern of protective limitation

This is the third time in eleven chapters that God limits human capacity, and the earlier two establish the pattern.

At Genesis 3:22, the man is put out of the garden “lest he put forth his hand, and take also of the tree of life, and eat, and live for ever.” Expulsion prevents an unendable condition of the fallen state. At Genesis 6:3, “his days shall be an hundred and twenty years”: a ceiling on lifespan, imposed as the earth fills with violence. At Genesis 11:6–7, a ceiling on collective execution.

In each case the limitation follows a diagnosis of what the unlimited version would produce, and in each case the limitation is protective as well as punitive. To read the Babel scattering as pure retribution is to break a pattern the text has already established twice.

6.3 What is absent from the judgment

The absences are instructive. There is no death. There is no curse formula, of the sort pronounced in 3:14–19, 4:11, or 9:25. There is no expulsion from a place of blessing; the builders are dispersed across an earth they were told to fill in the first place. There is no destruction of the works. There is no generational sentence attached.

And the outcome of the judgment is verbally identical to the mandate of 1:28 and 9:1. The builders act “lest we be scattered abroad upon the face of the whole earth” (v. 4); the LORD scatters them “abroad upon the face of all the earth” (v. 8, 9). What they organized to prevent is what was commanded, and the judgment accomplishes the command. The scattering is the blessing of Genesis 1 administered against resistance.

6.4 Against over-correction

This reading has a well-developed academic form, most fully in Hiebert’s argument that Genesis 11 is not a story of sin and punishment at all but an account of the origin of the world’s cultures, in which dispersion is the divine intention and the builders’ fault, if any, is merely the desire to stay in one place.[17] The argument is careful and it has moved the discussion in the right direction. It goes one step too far.

Two features of the text resist a reading with no judgment in it. The first is “let us make us a name,” which is not a neutral preference for settlement but a claim, and one the canon immediately answers with a counter-claim in 12:2. The second is the divine speech of verse 6, which frames the response as restraint of a capability, not as redirection of a preference. A God who merely wanted people distributed more evenly would not need to remark that nothing will be restrained from them.

The correct formulation is the harder one and it is the one this collection carries forward: the scattering is judgment and mercy in one act, and it is a real loss. Confusion of language is not costless. It ends a project, fractures a community, and makes the remainder of human history harder in ways the canon does not pretend otherwise about. Acts 2 will treat the division of tongues as a condition requiring a remedy, and will supply one. The claim here is not that the scattering was pleasant. The claim is that it was protective, and that the alternative — unrestrained collective execution under one name of one imagination — was worse.

This matters for the framework because it fixes the collection’s stance toward imperial collapse. When empires break apart in the analysis that follows, the breaking is not read as tragedy requiring reversal. It is read as a ceiling functioning.

7. Abram as the structural reversal

The call of Abram follows immediately, and it addresses each of the four marks in order.

Babel (11:1–4)	Abram (12:1–3)
Concentration: they found a plain and dwelt there, lest we be scattered	Dispersal: “Get thee out of thy country, and from thy kindred, and from thy father’s house”
One language, one set of words	No idiom imposed; the promise is to “all families of the earth,” plural and undissolved
A name made for ourselves	A name given: “I will . . . make thy name great”
A city and a tower built with manufactured materials	A land not built but shown: “unto a land that I will shew thee”

The reversal is complete and it is adjacent. Whatever the compositional history, the received arrangement places the answer to the imperial configuration directly after its description, and the answer is not a better empire. It is a man leaving a city with no building program, no shared tongue to impose, no name of his own to make, and no destination he selected.

One element of the reversal is easy to pass over and matters most for Paper 3. The blessing runs to “all families of the earth” — the seventy nations of Genesis 10, left as they are. The remedy for the Babel condition does not re-consolidate. It blesses the plurality that the scattering produced. This is the first appearance in the canon of the principle that Paper 3 will develop from Acts 2 and Acts 17: the biblical answer to division is never consolidation. Pentecost will not restore the one lip. It will make every lip heard.

8. Four propositions for the framework

Proposition 1: The imperial marks are not size-indexed. Nothing in Genesis 11:1–4 specifies a population, a territory, an army, or a border. Any body that concentrates, standardizes, monumentalizes, and names itself displays the configuration. A denomination and a hegemon are, on this text, the same kind of thing at different magnitudes. This is the scriptural warrant for the scale invariance principle that governs the whole collection.

Proposition 2: Uniformity is infrastructure, not ornament. The one speech is not a symptom of the project’s success but a precondition of its execution, which is why it is the point at which the project is stopped. In diagnostic use, the enforced common idiom of an institution — its vocabulary, its required formulations, its licensed ways of describing its own work — is a more reliable indicator than its stated ambitions.

Proposition 3: The self-conferred name is the diagnostic mark. The other three marks admit of innocent instances. People settle; people share a language; people build. The claim to generate one’s own significance does not admit of an innocent instance, because it is by construction a claim to be answerable to nothing outside. Where the four marks appear together, this is the one to test first.

Proposition 4: Dispersal is the remedy, not the failure. Genesis 11 treats scattering as the resolution and Genesis 12 treats plurality as the field of blessing. An analysis built on this text will not read fragmentation of an imperial order as a problem to be solved by reconstituting the order, at any scale.

8.1 A short diagnostic

The four marks can be put as questions applicable to a body of any size. They are offered as an instrument for use, not as a scoring system; the marks are meant to be weighed together, since each has innocent instances alone.

Concentration. Does the body organize to prevent exit? Are departure, distance, and independent operation treated as threats to be managed rather than as ordinary outcomes?
Uniformity. Is there a required idiom? Can the body’s work be described accurately in words the body did not supply? What happens to those who describe it in other words?
The name. Where does the body’s significance come from, in its own account? Is there any external standard by which it concedes it could be found wanting, and has that standard ever been applied against it in practice?
The monument. Is there a central project whose scale exceeds its function, and which is defended in terms of what it says about the body rather than what it does for anyone?

A body answering yes at 1, 2, and 3 is displaying the Babel configuration whether or not it has a tower, and whether it has four million members or forty.

9. Objections

“This reads a political argument into an etiological folktale.” The passage is an etiology; it says so, in verse 9, about the name. But etiologies encode judgments, and this one encodes several: that concentration was organized against a command, that the project was stopped rather than completed, and that the name the city gave itself was refused. A story can explain how languages came to differ and simultaneously say what the attempt to unify them was. The alternative reading, in which the passage is only about languages, has to account for verse 4’s stated motive and verse 6’s stated reason, and it does not.

“Nimrod may not be a negative figure.” Granted, and the argument does not require him to be. Section 3 uses Genesis 10:8–12 for its structure — center, replication, expansion, greatness — and for the fact that Babel and Nineveh are introduced on one line. Both hold under a neutral or even favorable reading of Nimrod. Readers who take lipnê YHWH as commendation may treat the sequence as descriptive rather than accusatory without loss to the framework.

“‘Empire’ is anachronistic for third-millennium Shinar.” The term is anachronistic for the narrative setting, and it is used here for the configuration rather than for any reconstructed polity. That is the paper’s whole method: the marks are specified so that they can be applied without importing a state-based definition. If the objection is that the passage’s authors did not have the modern concept of empire, this is correct and irrelevant, since what is claimed is that they described a structure the modern concept names imperfectly.

“Does this condemn cities, cooperation, and shared language as such?” No, and the canon forecloses the inference. Jerusalem is a city, gathering is commanded, the church is assembled rather than dispersed, and Revelation ends with a city descending. The distinction is between a body concentrated around a name it made and a body gathered around a name it received. The first is Babel; the second is the assembly in Christ Jesus. The four marks are not four goods misused. Three of them are goods, and the fourth is the claim that turns the other three.

The strongest form of the general objection is that a category this portable will find empire everywhere and therefore say nothing. That risk is real, and the guard against it is the same instrument: the marks must appear together, and the third must be present. Institutions that concentrate, standardize, and build without asserting self-generated significance are not displaying this structure. Bureaucracy is not Babel. Babel is bureaucracy that has decided what it means.

10. Conclusion

Genesis 11:1–9 gives Scripture’s account of empire before Scripture has an empire to describe. It does so by withholding everything that would tie the account to one case: no king, no date, no ruin, no border. What remains is four marks and a divine response, and the four marks are portable to any scale.

Two consequences carry into the rest of Cluster A. The first is the renaming. The narrator refuses the imperial self-designation bab-ili and substitutes a name describing the outcome, and in doing so establishes a device the canon will use for a thousand years, applying “Babylon” to whatever displays the structure regardless of geography or dynasty. Paper 2 follows that device from the Euphrates to Rome and into Revelation, and argues that it does work the international relations literature’s category of strategic culture cannot.

The second is the direction of the remedy. The scattering is judgment and mercy in one act, it accomplishes a command the builders had organized to prevent, and the call of Abram that follows blesses the resulting plurality rather than repairing the lost unity. Paper 3 takes up the positive doctrine that follows: bounded, plural nations as an ordered arrangement, and Pentecost as the answer to Babel that leaves the many languages standing.

The city is still there at the end of verse 9. Nobody knocked it down. They simply left off building it, which is what happens when a project loses the infrastructure that made it executable. Empires are not usually destroyed. They are usually left off.

Notes

Attempts to identify the tower with Etemenanki, the staged temple tower of Marduk at Babylon, are long-standing and plausible as a source of the imagery, but the identification is of the type rather than of the episode; the narrative supplies no chronological anchor that would allow more. On the temple towers generally, see George (1993) and Oppenheim (1964).
1 Peter 5:13; Revelation 14:8, 16:19, 17:5, 18:2, 18:10, 18:21.
Westermann (1984) is the standard treatment of the compositional seam and its history of interpretation.
Cassuto (1964) argues that Genesis 10 and 11:1–9 are complementary rather than sequential, the former reporting the fact of national division and the latter its meaning. Kikawada and Quinn (1985) reach a comparable conclusion on different grounds, from the structure of Genesis 1–11 as a whole.
Isaiah 13–14, 21, 47; Jeremiah 50–51; Daniel 1–5; 1 Peter 5:13; Revelation 17–18 for Babylon. Jonah 1:2, 3:2–10; Nahum 1–3; Zephaniah 2:13–15 for Nineveh. Paper 12 takes up the Jonah material directly.
Sarna (1989) surveys the interpretive options on 10:8–9, including the range of force given to lipnê YHWH. The derivation of the name from marad is traditional rather than philological and is not relied on here.
Mann (1986), on caging as the mechanism by which early social power was consolidated.
Scott (2017), especially on the persistent problem of population retention in the earliest grain states.
Scott (1998), on legibility and standardization as the characteristic requirements of centralizing administration.
The claim to have made subject peoples of one mouth or one speech recurs in the Neo-Assyrian royal corpus; see the inscriptions collected in Luckenbill (1926–1927) and the translations in Pritchard (1969).
Uehlinger (1990) argues that Genesis 11:1–9 is a polemic against a specific imperial building and resettlement program. The dating is disputed; the idiomatic correspondence stands independently of it.
The passage occurs in Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta; see Vanstiphout (2003) for text, translation, and discussion, including the question of whether the lines describe a past unity of speech or a hoped-for future one.
On the alluvial plain’s lack of building stone and the use of bitumen as mortar, see Oppenheim (1964).
The idiom of a structure whose top reaches the heavens is conventional in Mesopotamian building inscriptions; Speiser (1964) and Sarna (1989) note the correspondence in their comments on 11:4.
George (1993) on the function of the staged tower within the temple complex; Oppenheim (1964) on the associated cult practice.
The play is on assonance rather than derivation; bab-ili and balal are unrelated, which is the point. Wenham (1987) and Sarna (1989) both treat the substitution as intentional polemic rather than as a naive etymology.
Hiebert (2007). The essay is engaged here at length because it is the strongest available form of the reading this paper partly adopts and partly resists.

References

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