Introduction

Covenant is one of the central architectures of biblical revelation. Scripture presents God’s relationship with humanity—not least with Israel and the Church—through covenantal forms that articulate promises, obligations, blessings, and curses. Yet not all covenants in the Bible operate in the same way. A biblicist framework requires careful differentiation between unilateral (divine-promise) covenants and conditional (bilateral) covenants, because the nature of the covenant determines the nature of the relationship and the human response required.

This white paper analyzes the biblical data concerning how covenants are made and maintained, the distinctions between unilateral and conditional forms, the modes of ratification, and the theological consequences that flow from these categories.

1. Defining “Covenant” as Used in Scripture

1.1 Covenant as a Binding, Oath-Based Relationship

The Hebrew berith and Greek diathēkē describe a binding commitment established through oath or pledge, normally affirmed through ritual. Scripture does not reduce covenant to mere contract; rather, it frames covenant as a solemn, morally charged bond with divine implications (Gen. 21:27; Ps. 89:34).

1.2 The Covenant Formula

Covenants frequently establish relational identity:

“I will be your God, and you shall be My people” (Exod. 6:7; Lev. 26:12). “By Myself I have sworn” in divine-promise covenants (Gen. 22:16).

1.3 The Covenant Pattern

Biblical covenants consistently—but with variation—contain:

A historical prologue Stipulations or promises Sanctions (blessings/curses) Witnesses A ratifying sign or ritual

The presence or absence of stipulations determines whether the covenant is unilateral or conditional.

2. Unilateral Covenants: Divine Promises Grounded in God’s Oath

2.1 Definition

A unilateral covenant is initiated, framed, and upheld by God alone. Human beings may receive blessings within the covenant, but they do not maintain or secure the covenant by obedience. The covenant stands because God swears by Himself.

2.2 Scriptural Examples

2.2.1 Noahic Covenant (Genesis 9)

God pledges never to destroy all life by flood. The covenant is universal—made with Noah, his descendants, and every living creature. Sign: the rainbow. Conditions for human conduct (e.g., against murder) exist, but they do not form the basis of the covenant’s continuation.

This covenant is stabilizing to creation and is upheld solely by God (Gen. 9:11; Isa. 54:9–10).

2.2.2 Abrahamic Covenant (Genesis 12, 15, 17, 22)

Key features mark it as unilateral:

God initiates (“I will bless… I will make…” Gen. 12:2–3). God swears by Himself (Gen. 22:16). In Genesis 15, God alone passes through the pieces, showing Abraham does not guarantee the oath.

Human obedience (Gen. 17:1; Gen. 22:18) determines participation in blessings, but not the covenant’s endurance as such.

2.2.3 Davidic Covenant (2 Samuel 7; Ps. 89; Ps. 132)

God promises to establish David’s dynasty. Chastening for disobedient sons is possible, but the covenant itself will not fail (2 Sam. 7:14–15).

The covenant rests on God’s fidelity, not human compliance.

2.3 Modes of Establishing Unilateral Covenants

Unilateral covenants are typically ratified through:

a. Divine oath:

God swears by His own name (Gen. 22:16; Isa. 45:23; Heb. 6:13–18).

b. Symbolic ritual:

In Genesis 15, a smoking fire pot and flaming torch pass between the severed animals—an ancient oath-binding ritual.

c. Covenant signs:

Rainbow (Noahic) Circumcision (Abrahamic) Eternal throne (Davidic, symbolized by Zion and the dynasty)

The human party may participate in the sign, but the covenant’s continuation is grounded solely in God.

3. Conditional Covenants: Bilateral Agreements Dependent on Obedience

3.1 Definition

A conditional covenant binds God’s promises to human obedience. While God initiates these covenants, their continuation requires faithful response. Blessings and cursings form an inseparable structure.

3.2 Scriptural Examples

3.2.1 Mosaic Covenant (Exodus 19–24; Deut. 27–30)

This covenant is explicitly conditional:

“If you will indeed obey My voice… then you shall be a special treasure to Me” (Exod. 19:5). Blessings for obedience in Deut. 28:1–14. Curses for disobedience in Deut. 28:15–68.

The covenant is made with Israel as a nation, not individuals, and its maintenance requires national obedience.

3.2.2 The Land Covenant Conditions (Deut. 30; Lev. 26)

Possession of the land is conditional upon fidelity to the covenant:

Exile is the curse for breach (Lev. 26:33; Deut. 28:63–68). Restoration follows repentance (Deut. 30:1–10).

These conditions coexist with the unconditional Abrahamic promises, but operate at a different level—possession vs. promise.

3.2.3 Priestly Covenant Conditions (Num. 25; Mal. 2)

The covenant with Levi contains conditional elements:

Blessing and peace for faithfulness. Curse and rejection for corruption (Mal. 2:8–9).

This pattern contrasts starkly with the Davidic covenant.

3.3 Modes of Establishing Conditional Covenants

Conditional covenants are ratified through:

a. Mutual acceptance:

Israel explicitly affirms, “All that the LORD has spoken we will do” (Exod. 19:8; 24:3,7).

b. Blood ratification:

The Mosaic covenant is ratified with blood sprinkled on both the altar and the people (Exod. 24:7–8).

c. Witnesses:

Heaven and earth are called as covenantal witnesses (Deut. 30:19; 31:28).

d. Public reading and oath-taking:

Periodic reading reaffirms the covenant (Deut. 31:10–13; Josh. 24:25–27).

Obedience is the sustaining factor.

4. Hybrid or “Mixed” Covenants? Clarifying Common Misunderstandings

Some covenants contain unconditional and conditional elements, but the categories remain distinct when properly parsed:

The Abrahamic covenant is unconditional as to its core promises, but conditional regarding inheritance participation by individuals. The Davidic covenant is unconditional regarding the dynasty, but conditional regarding disciplinary treatment of kings. The New Covenant (Jer. 31; Ezek. 36; Matt. 26; Heb. 8–10) is unconditional in establishment and ultimate outcome, yet calls individuals to repentance and faith for participation.

Biblically, the question is always: What is unconditional, and for whom?

5. The New Covenant in Relation to the Earlier Structures

5.1 The Nature of the New Covenant

Jeremiah 31 and Hebrews 8 frame the New Covenant as:

Unilaterally established by God Founded on God’s internal transformation of the heart Secured by the blood of Christ (Matt. 26:28; Heb. 9:15)

Its fulfillment is guaranteed because its success rests on God’s action, not human strength.

5.2 Individual Participation Is Conditional

While the covenant is established unconditionally, individuals must respond in faith:

“Repent and believe” (Mark 1:15). “This is My blood of the new covenant… for many” (Matt. 26:28). Judgment falls on those who reject it (Heb. 10:28–31).

Thus the covenant itself is unilateral in divine inauguration, yet conditional in individual appropriation.

6. How Covenants Are Made: A Biblical Theology of Covenant-Making

A biblicist analysis of covenant-making identifies consistent components:

6.1 Divine Initiative

All covenants originate with God’s initiative—whether unilateral (Gen. 12; 22) or conditional (Exod. 19).

6.2 Revelation of Terms

God reveals the structure:

Promises (unilateral) Stipulations (conditional) Blessings/curses Duration Parties involved

6.3 Oath or Solemn Declaration

God or the human parties (or both) swear to uphold the covenant. The oath is the core element (Heb. 6:16–18).

6.4 Ritual Ratification

Common biblical rituals include:

Sacrifice (Gen. 15; Exod. 24) Sprinkling of blood Shared meal (Exod. 24:11; Luke 22:20) Setting up witness stones (Josh. 24:26–27) Covenant signs (circumcision, Sabbath, rainbow)

6.5 Public Establishment

Covenants are made in the presence of witnesses—human, angelic, or cosmic.

6.6 Enduring Structure

Once established, covenants endure until fulfilled, superseded, or judged.

7. Theological and Practical Implications of the Distinction

7.1 Assurance vs. Responsibility

Unilateral covenants anchor assurance; conditional covenants underscore responsibility.

7.2 National vs. Personal Scope

Unilateral covenants frequently carry redemptive-historical significance across generations. Conditional covenants often regulate the conduct of communities or institutions.

7.3 Proper Interpretation of Blessings and Curses

Misapplying conditional covenant patterns (e.g., Deut. 28) to unconditional promises can produce theological error.

7.4 Understanding Continuity and Discontinuity in Scripture

A clear covenantal framework clarifies:

The relation between Israel and the Church Why exile occurred Why Messiah’s kingdom is guaranteed Why salvation rests on grace alone Why obedience remains necessary

Conclusion

The biblical distinction between unilateral and conditional covenants is not merely academic; it structures the entire storyline of redemption. Unilateral covenants demonstrate God’s sovereign faithfulness, while conditional covenants articulate the moral framework within which God’s people experience the blessings or the discipline of the covenant relationship.

A biblicist approach honors the shape of each covenant as God gave it. Understanding how each covenant is made, ratified, and maintained allows Scripture to speak with its own categories, preserving the integrity of biblical theology and illuminating the unified narrative of God’s redemptive work.